Frameworks of Financial Reports

💦Assumption on Financial Reporting:

• Fair presentation
• Going concern
• Accrual Basic
• Materiality and aggregation
• No offsetting
• Frequency of reporting
• Consistency
• Comparative Information

💦Fundamental characteristics of useful information:

• Relevance (Information that can affect a decision and encompasses the notion of materiality)
• faithful Representation (complete, natural, free from error)

💦Enhancing characteristics of useful information:

• Comparability
• Verifiability
• Timeliness
• Understandability

Cash flow of the Firm

The cash flow statement explains the change in a company's cash and cash equivalents over a period by categorizing cash flows into three main activities:

1. Operating Cash Flow (CFO): Reflects cash generated from core business operations.
2. Investing Cash Flow (CFI): Reflects cash used for or generated from investments in long-term assets
3. Financing Cash Flow (CFF): Reflects cash transactions with shareholders and creditors.

So,

$$CFO=\text{Net Income}+\text{Non-Cash Items}-\Delta \text{Net Working CapitalNet Income: From the income statement.Non-Cash Items: Typically include depreciation and amortization, as these reduce net income but do not involve cash outflows.Net Working Capital (NWC): Change in current assets (excluding cash) minus current liabilities. An increase in NWC (more inventory or receivables) reduces cash, while a decrease in NWC increases cash.}$$

         CFI= −Cash Paid for Fixed Assets + Cash Received from Sale of Fixed Assets Investing 

• Cash Paid for Fixed Assets: Capital expenditures (purchasing equipment or property).
• Cash Received from Sale of Fixed Assets: Proceeds from selling assets like machinery or buildings.

         CFF=Cash from Issuing Debt/Equity−Cash Paid to Retire Debt/Stock−

                     Cash Dividends Paid−Stock Repurchased

• Includes issuing or repaying debt, issuing or repurchasing stock, and paying dividends.

The net change in cash is:

$$\Delta \text{Cash} = \text{Operating Cash Flow} + \text{Investing Cash Flow} + \text{Financing Cash Flow}$$

---

👉Why Cash Flow Analysis is Popular

We mentioned that cash flow analysis is popular because it’s difficult to manipulate. because:

• Cash-based: Unlike net income, which can be affected by accounting policies (e.g., revenue recognition, depreciation methods), cash flows reflect actual cash movements, making them harder to "spin."
• Transparency: Cash flows provide a clear picture of a company’s liquidity and ability to meet obligations, invest, or return capital to shareholders.
• Decision-making: Investors and creditors rely on cash flows to assess a company’s financial health and sustainability.

---

Free Cash Flow (FCF)

Free Cash Flow represents the cash a company can distribute to creditors and stockholders after funding operations and necessary investments.

$$FCF = \text{Net Income} + \text{Non-Cash Charges} + \text{Interest Expense} \times (1 - \text{Tax Rate}) - \text{Capital Expenditures} - \Delta \text{Working Capital}$$

                         FCF=Net Income+ Non-Cash Charges+ Interest Expense× (1−Tax Rate) −Capital Expenditures−ΔWorking Capital

• Non-Cash Charges: Typically, depreciation and amortization.
• Interest Expense × (1 - Tax Rate): Adjusts for the tax shield on interest, as interest is tax-deductible.
• Capital Expenditures (Capex): Cash spent on acquiring or maintaining fixed assets.
• Change in Working Capital: Increase in NWC reduces FCF, as it ties up cash.

Capital Expenditures (Capex):

$$\text{Capex}=\text{Ending Net Fixed Assets}-\text{Beginning Net Fixed Assets}+\text{Depreciation}$$

• This formula accounts for the change in net fixed assets (after depreciation) and adds back depreciation to capture the actual cash spent on new assets.

Net working capital

Net working capital is the difference between a company’s current assets (like cash, accounts receivable, and inventory) and current liabilities (like bills or loans due within a year). If current assets are greater than current liabilities, net working capital is positive, meaning the company expects to have more cash coming in over the next 12 months than it needs to pay out. For example, if a company has $90,000 in current assets and $50,000 in current liabilities, its net working capital is $40,000, showing it has extra cash to cover short-term obligation. 

The change in net working capital reflects how much more (or less) is invested in these short-term assets compared to short-term debts. In a growing company, this change is usually positive, meaning the company is increasing its current assets (e.g., stocking more inventory or holding more cash) to support growth, like a store adding $10,000 more in inventory and $5,000 in cash while only increasing liabilities by $3,000, resulting in a positive change of $12,000 in net working capital.

Income statements to evaluate companies’ growth, profitability

 The Income Statement: measures performance over a specific period (a year)

Revenue − Expenses = Income

The operations report the firm’s revenues and expenses from principal operations. One number of particular importance is earnings before interest and taxes (EBIT), which summarizes earnings before taxes and financing costs. Among other things, the nonoperating of the income statement includes all financing costs, such as interest expense. Net income is frequently expressed per share of common stock that is, earnings per share.

Earnings per share = Net income / Total share outstanding

Dividend per share = Dividend / Total share outstanding

💦non-cash items: There are several noncash items that are expenses against revenues but do not affect cash flow. Depreciation reflects the accountant’s estimate of the cost of equipment

used up in the production process. Deferred taxes result from differences between accounting income and true taxable income.

Accounting costs usually fit into a classification that distinguishes product costs from period costs. Product costs are the total production costs incurred during a period—raw materials, direct labor, and manufacturing overhead—and are reported on the income statement as cost of goods sold. Both variable and fixed costs are included in product costs. Period costs are costs that are allocated to a time period; they are called selling, general, and administrative expenses.

The balance sheet

Financial analysis is the process of interpreting and evaluating a company’s performance and position in the context of its economic environment, for achieving this goal we have to describe articles of financial statements which helps us to understand better of the target company’s business model.

The Balance Sheet: The balance sheet discloses what an entity owns (assets), what an entity owes (liabilities), and the owners’ interest in the net assets of a company (equity) at a specific point in time. or what the firm owns and how it is financed.

Asset= Liabilities+ Equity

For Analyzing balance sheet first, we know about liquidity, debt versus equity, and value versus cost.

• Liquidity describes how easily and quickly assets can be turned into cash without losing value. Current assets, like cash, accounts receivable (money owed by customers), and inventory (raw materials, work-in-progress, and finished goods), are the most liquid, as they can typically be converted to cash within a year. Fixed assets, such as property, plant, equipment, and intangible assets like trademarks or patents, are less liquid and not usually used to cover short-term expenses like payroll. While having more liquid assets reduces the risk of financial difficulties by making it easier to meet short-term obligations, they often yield lower returns compared to fixed assets, meaning firms may miss out on more profitable investments by focusing too much on liquidity.

• Liabilities are amounts a company owes and must pay in cash within a set time, like a $10,000 bank loan with interest due in a year or a $5,000 bill for supplies due in 30 days. These debts often come with fixed payments, called debt service, and if the company doesn’t pay, creditors (like the bank) can take legal action. Stockholders’ equity is what’s left for the owners after paying all debts, like owning a $100,000 building with a $60,000 mortgage—equity is the $40,000 difference. If the company earns $10,000 in profit and keeps $6,000 instead of paying it as dividends, that $6,000 boosts stockholders’ equity (retained earnings are added). Creditors, like those owed for the loan, get paid before shareholders if the company runs into financial trouble.

• The accounting value of a firm’s assets is frequently referred to as the carrying value or the book value of the assets the book value of the assets. Market value is the price at which willing buyers and sellers would trade the assets. So, when we say the goal of the financial manager is to increase the value of the stock, we usually mean the market value of the stock, not the book value. The distinction between book and market values is important precisely because book values can be so different from market values.

The goal of Financial Managements

A definition of the goal is important because it leads to an objective basis for making and evaluating financial decisions. The main goal of financial Managment is to make money and add value for the owners. We can say some possible goals like:

• Survives

• Avoid financial distress and bankruptcy

• Beat the competition

• Maximize sales and market share

• Minimize costs

• Maximize profits

• Maintain steady earnings growth

In fact, we have defined as a study of the relationship between business decision, cash flow and value of the stock in the business. Therefore, a more general way of goal is Maximize the value of the owners’ equity.